Disaster Preparedness and Response: Wildfires

Lydia Wollerman

Introduction and Overview:

Wildfires, defined as uncontrolled fires occurring in vegetated and natural land, pose a significant challenge to environmental and public health systems all around the world. In the United States, approximately 85-90% of wildfires are caused by human intervention according to the United State Forest Service (USDA: U.S. Forest Service). Common causes to human induced wildfires include poor fire safety, improper disposal of flammable materials or chemicals, and equipment malfunctions such as loose sparks or faulty wires. The smaller remaining portion of wildfires can be attributed to naturally occurring events. This included activity such as lightning and volcanic or plate tectonic movements. In context of Earth’s changing climate, with rising temperatures and increased droughts, the frequency and scale of wildfires are expected to increase (Byrne, Brendan, et al). As these fires continue to rise, strategies for disaster preparedness and response become increasenly important. Wildfires raise various environmental and health concerns that government agencies do their best to mitigate. (LW)

Pollution Caused by Wildfires:

Wildfires cause considerate amounts of damage to ecosystems, many of which can have adverse impacts on human life. It can take years to decades for regions of wildlife to fully recover. Vegetation, soil chemistry, animal habitats, air and water quality, and land stability are all greatly altered by fires (USDA: U.S. Forest Service). Nature has always used wildfires to manage it’s ecosystems naturally. Issues arise with higher intensity fires from human intervention and increased frequency due to climate change. Fires bring major concerns related to public health through the large amounts of pollution released. (LW)

Air Pollution:

Air pollution is a major concern created by wildfires. Wildfire smoke releases various harmful gases in large amounts including carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4), and particulate matter (PM2.5) (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). During research conducted the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the 2023 Canadian wildfires burned 15 million hectares of land displacing thousands of residents and releasing 640 million metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere (NASA). Researchers at NASA used air samples, wind patterns, and satellite images to create detailed animations depicting the carbon monoxide being released from the Canadian fires. In the image below, the orange and purple swirls indicate carbon gases. Orange areas highlight the regions with the highest carbon concentrations. While the fires burned in Canada the map depicts impacts of wildfire smoke on air quality all across North America. (LW)

In another study, researchers compared the total carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions from the Canadian wildfires to other nations total carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. It was revealed that the fires alone released enough carbon comparable to India’s total fossil fuel emissions in 2023 and over triple of Canada’s standard fossil fuel carbon emissions (Byrne, Brendan, et al.). The large amounts of carbon being released is important to note because carbon forms trap heat in our atmosphere by absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Methane and nitrogen oxides also behave this way when interacting with solar radiation. This important process is known as the greenhouse gas effect, it traps heat and thus ultimately warms lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). Not only are wildfires being caused my global climate change from warming temperatures and increased winds, it also perpetuates climate change by trapping in additional heat through the greenhouse gases. (LW)

Water Quality:

Water quality is another major environmental concern related to wildfire pollution. Three significant water toxicants following wildfires include toxic metals, nutrients, and sediments. The severity of water contamination depends on a few factors. The burned areas geography, vegetation, possible human pollutants, and the overall intensity of the fire all play a key role (Wandersee, Michael, et al.). Contamination water comes from both rainwater following the fires and the act of putting out the fires. This polluted water can run into local water sources like reservoirs, rivers, lakes, and streams. Fire retardants and extinguishing chemicals used in fires can contain metals including lead and mercury which can make its way into nearby water sources through runoff. Additionally, wildfires release large amounts of nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen from the burning of organic matter. These elements corrupt local water sources by encouraging large algae blooms. The nutrients fertilizes algae promoting unhealthy and excessive growth. The algae then starves the water source of oxygen killing the plants and aquatic wildlife within the waters (Byrne, Brendan, et al.). In the image below, algae blooms off the coast of Australia can be seen in the varying color of the waters. (LW)

Erosion:

Sediments entering water ways through erosion processes is another major concern to water quality and wildlife following a wildfire. Sediments include rocks, minerals, and organic material found naturally in a given area. High intensity fires can burn trees and vegetation down through the roots killing the plant entirely. Plant roots act as a form of stability for the land holding the surface layer of the Earth together. Without them, the region becomes more susceptible to geological processes including erosion and landslides (Morse). Sediments from these processes get carried by winds, gravity, and water polluting waters nearby. Without plants and vegetation water runoff increases post wildfires. Plants typically absorb large amounts of rain water controlling runoff rates. Without this important ecosystem service the water turns into runoff which picks up ash and other pollutants from the fire and distributes them into water ways (Fitzgerald). Wildfire is also threatened by erosion. Landslides and erosion can cause further habitat destruction to local animals. This makes it harder for the animals in the area to recover from the fires (Morse). (LW)

Health Impacts:

Wildfires raise various concerns in regards to public and individual health. Smoke produced for the fires contain gases and particles linked to several physical health concerns. Smoke inhalation is the primary source of exposure but exposure can also come from ingesting contaminated food and water. Short term immediate impacts of smoke inhalation can include coughing, trouble breathing, asthma attacks, chest pains, and headaches (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). Often these symptoms occur for a few days to weeks. Longer term health impacts are under researched and not fully understood. It is difficult to track effects of smoke exposure over long time frames and what conditions are directly correlated to wildfires. Research does indicate decreased respiratory and cardiovascular function over time. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides have been shown to cause cancer, specifically lung cancer (Kelley). (LW)

Various elements make an individual more at risk for adverse health impacts of wildfire smoke inhalation. Generally, children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with pre existing conditions are at highest risk. Children breathe more in comparison to their body size than adults do. This means children consume more toxicants through inhalation relative to their bodies than adults do (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). Individuals with pre existing cardiovascular and respiratory issues are at high risk. Socioeconomic status also possible health impacts. Low income communities are more likely to lack protective and preventive resources to smoke. This includes limited access respiratory protection such as breathing masks, medical care, timely evacuation plans, transportation and housing. The lack of resources can result in unequal health outcomes between high and low income communities in the event of a wildfire (Kelley). (LW)

Beyond physical health impacts, wildfires and other natural cause significant psychological stress on survivors. In a study done by the University of Colorado, Boulder, it was found that 30-40% of natural disaster survivors experience symptoms consistent with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Kelley). PTSD is a mental health condition caused by experiencing a traumatic event. Possible symptoms include intrusive thoughts, nightmares, sleep disturbances, depression, hyper vigilance, and difficulty concentrating. Symptoms may be present long after the traumatic event has passed. Treatment for suffering individuals includes psychological therapies such an cognitive behavioral therapy and psychiatric medications (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). (LW)

United States Prevention and Response Methods:

In the United States, wildfire prevention and response is managed by multiple levels of government. Local, state, and federal agencies all play a key role in fighting these natural and manmade disasters. Disaster resilience refers to a community’s or government’s ability to recover from a natural disaster. Government response determines an areas resiliency. Initial response to wildfires typically falls to the local or state fire departments. Federal agencies may intervene with additional funding and resources when deemed necessary. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) plays a major role in natural disaster preparation and response. In the event of a fire, FEMA primarily aids communities and individuals with extra funding through grants. The Fire Management Assistance Grant (FMAG) Program was created by FEMA designed to provide communities at both a local and state level with financial support to both prevent and respond to wildfires (“Hazard Mitigation Assistance Grants.”). In addition to FEMA, there are many agencies within the government that perform specific tasks fighting against wildfires. (LW)

The United States Forest Service:

The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) is an agency within the Department of Agriculture who’s primary goal is to manage the forests and other natural lands of the United States. The USFS administers both wildfire prevention and recovery methods. While it might seem counterintuitive, one effective method of wildfire prevent is fire or controlled burns. Controlled burns, also known as prescribed fires, are intentional fires set to a given land region. They are ignited with the intention of preventing a much larger out of control fire. Controlled burns remove potential wildfire fuels like excess dead and dry vegetation. Areas with seasons of prolonged droughts accumulate large amounts of dead brush which acts as an accelerant in the event of a fire. Removing it prevents wildfires which could lead to greater damage to the ecosystem, harm human lives, and destroy properties (Fitzgerald). Controlled burns are heavily regulated in the United States by multiple agencies. Smaller groups may perform them but must get approval from their local or state government. Intensive planning goes into these fires. Trained firefighters and environmental specialists spend weeks creating a detailed forest treatment plan. Controlled burns must be done under ideal conditions in order to achieve the goal of the burn and limit smoke exposure (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). Part of the plan includes predicting fire behaviors. Fire behavior refers the burn areas predicted rate of spread. Specialists determine this by analyzing the the areas vegetation, topography, seasonal precipitation and weather conditions. A detailed map is created with all these factors taken into consideration (USGAO). Weather conditions play a critical role when planning controlled burns. In the days leading up to the fire, the weather and winds are heavily monitored. If winds are too strong or precipitation is predicted, the fire will be postponed for a day with better conditions (Fitzgerald). Safety is the number one priority, by monitoring conditions out of control fires can be prevented. (LW)

The USFS also plays a critical role in wildland recovery following severe wildfires. The Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) is a program created by the U.S. Forest Service aiming to prevent any further damages to wildlife, properties, humans, and natural resources after a wildfire. Primarily used for federal lands, such as national parks and conservation areas, BAER prescribes emergency land treatments to effected burn zones. BAER is operated by a large team of hydrologists, soil chemists, engineers, biologists, and many others who quickly work to evaluate destroyed lands following a fire crisis. The teams assesses the land to create an individualized plan to best protect the land from further damage. Post wildfires erosion and pollution are too major concerns. BAER’s goal is to mitigate these risks. Generally, only a small portion of the burned region is treated. Priority areas include those highly susceptible to erosion or pollution, areas with roads or trails, campgrounds, and culturally valued locations.  Stabilizing and healing the land can look like different processes depending on the situation. One method is installing stilts and land supports to prevent potential landslides triggered by wildfires. Further, the removal of burned materials is done to prevent water potential. BAER’s goal is to stabilize crisis situations, it is not meant for long term rehabilitation (USDA: U.S. Forest Service). Longer term treatments and solutions are implemented afterwards by the USFS, other federal agencies, and by local resources. (LW)

The National Weather Service:

Staying informed is one of the easiest and most important ways individual citizens can respond to and prevent wildfires. The National Weather Service (NWS) is a federal agency under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration responsible for informing the public about the weather. Additionally, the NWS researches and reports various weather or climate data. They work together with local and federal offices to protect property, wildlands, and human lives from wildfires. With intentions to prevent fires, they will send out alerts to communicate when a certain geographic region is at high risk for a protentional fire. These alerts are known as Red Flag Warnings. A warning is meant to signal critical potential wildfire weather conditions, generally for the following 12 to 24 hours. Conditions include strong winds, high temperatures, low humidity levels, or abnormally dry lands. The combination of all these factors, or just several,  allows for fires to be easily ignited from both human intervention and nature. In the United States, the criteria for a Red Flag Warning can differ from state to state. For example, in more humid states such as Florida it will take more for a fire to start than in a drier state such as Texas or Arizona. This alert is used not only by the general public but also fire managers and local fire departments. Maps are issued by the NWS indicating regions, often shown as specific counties, that have been issued an official Red Flag Warning (US Department of Commerce, NOAA.). (LW)

California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation:

In the state of California, the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation established a program named the Conservation (Fire) Camps Program. Certain incarcerated individuals within the state of California are given the opportunity to volunteer in the event of a crisis. It’s a program created specifically for incarcerated individuals overseen by correctional staff and first responders. The program supports local communities in the even of disasters both natural and manmade including wildfires. Volunteers must show consist good behavior in prison in order to qualify for this position. Opportunities for pay, over time pay, and even reduced prison sentences are apart of this program. Wages for this program is very minimal which has sparked attention and criticism among the public. Participants are trained by professional fire fighters and must pass both a physical fitness test and a firefighting training program. The California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation emphasizes the importance of safety for volunteers noting the potential health risks and life threatening situations these camps aid in. They also claim that this program emphasizes on rehabilitation rather than corrections by giving incarcerated people purpose in prison (“Frequently Asked Questions.). (LW)

Seen early this year in January 2025, teams of incarcerated individuals including both men and women were aiding the Los Angeles Wildfire crisis. More than 20 fire camps containing over 1,100 volunteer firefighters were stationed around the state of California fighting the terrifying fire crisis. Members of the camp reported a new found sense of purpose through this program in an interview by The Guardian (Levin). One individual claimed that he planned to after he severed his sentence was to become a full time firefighter and serve his community. Many inmates seemed to have positive perspectives on the program. (LW)

“I wasn’t necessarily your model citizen out there, but here I get to play a role of a helper or I guess you could say a hero. I get a change to redeem myself.” – Joseph Sevilla, 23, incarcerated individual apart of the Californian fire camps (Levin).

Individual Preparedness:

Individuals can prepare for wildfires in a multitude of ways by simply planning ahead. Creating a detailed emergency plan ahead of time can help reduce the risk of both material loss and adverse health impacts. A wildfire might require you to leave your home quickly with very little time to prepare. Having a plan set in place before a crisis begins is critical. Taking these following precautions can create a significant difference in the even of a wildfire. (LW)

Recommendations for individual wildfire response:

1. Designated Location: Have a planned location to evacuate to well out of the fire zone. Plan who will be with you at this safe location.
2. Escape Routes: Research routes to get to designated location. Include planning alternative escape routes. Some roads may shut down in the event of a fire, do not rely on one single plan.
3. Emergency Kit: Prepare a kit ahead of time containing extra essentials. Essentials such as water, food, medications, first aid, filtration devices, breathing masks, and any important documents.
4. Staying Alert: Stay up to date with local weather and fire conditions, such as following Red Flag Warnings for the NSW. Register for emergency alerts. Follow local fire safety and evacuation instructions.

(D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.), ( (US Department of Commerce, NOAA.).

Preventing Smoke Inhalation:

Smoke inhalation is the major health risk associated with wildfires. It has been linked to both cardiovascular and respiratory issues (D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al.). Precautions can be made to prevent these dangerous health conditions. Like stated previously, smoke contains harmful gases and particles. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) emphasizes the importance of staying inside away during intense smoke and avoiding creating additional air pollution such as candle and aerosol sprays. If possible use indoor air filtration and purifying devices around your home. If going outside is necessary always check local air quality reports and wear a respirator. According to the CDC N95 and P100 respirators are the only masks designed to properly filter out toxic smoke particles. Other options such as surgical and fabric masks provide some barrier between smoke and the lungs but not complete protection (D’Alessandro, Maryann, et al.). (LW)

Conclusion:

Wildfires continue to be an ongoing and growing threat to the planet. They damage both wildlife, property, and human health. Ecosystems are threatened by large amounts of pollution in the air and water from smoke. Further, increased erosion following wildfires greatly alters the land. In addition to ecosystems, public and individual health is threatened. Smoke inhalation and pollution from wildfires has been linked to various health complications including physically and mentally. The United States utilizes resources across multiple levels of government to combat active wildfires and prevent new ones from igniting. Federal agencies such as FEMA, the U.S. Forest Service, the National Weather Service and state resources all play a critical role in firefighting. These programs aim to prevent damages, support community and wildlife recovery, and ultimately protect citizens in the event of a fire. Government aid must also come with individual citizens support by staying up to date and following safety guidelines. As wildfires continue to grown in intensity and frequency due to climate change, government initiatives for preparedness and response will become evermore important. (LW)

Sources:

“Burned Area Emergency Response – Baer.” USDA: U.S. Forest Service, www.fs.usda.gov/naturalresources/watershed/burnedareas-background.shtml. Accessed 18 Apr. 2025.

Byrne, Brendan, et al. “Carbon Emissions from the 2023 Canadian Wildfires.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 28 Aug. 2024, www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07878-z. Accessed 02 May 2025.

D’Alessandro, Maryann, et al. “How to Protect Workers and the Public from Wildfire Smoke.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2025/01/13/protecting-from-wildfire-smoke/. Accessed 06 May 2025.

D’Evelyn, Savannah M, et al. “Wildfire, Smoke Exposure, Human Health, and Environmental Justice Need to Be Integrated into Forest Restoration and Management.” Current Environmental Health Reports, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Sept. 2022, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9076366/. Accessed 21 Mar. 2025.

“Hazard Mitigation Assistance Grants.” FEMA.Gov, 25 Mar. 2025, www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation. Accessed 06 May 2025.

Fitzgerald, Stephen. “A Land Manager’s Guide for Creating Fire-Resistant Forests.” OSU Extension Service, Oregon State University Extension Service, 7 Dec. 2023, extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pub/em-9087-land-managers-guide-creating-fire-resistant-forests. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.

“Frequently Asked Questions Conservation (Fire) Camp Program.” California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, 15 Jan. 2025, www.cdcr.ca.gov/facility-locator/conservation-camps/faq-conservation-fire-camp-program/. Accessed 05 May 2025.

Kelley, Laura. “Aftermath of California Wildfires May Have a Heavy Mental Health Toll.” CU Anschutz Newsroom, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 8 Jan. 2025, news.cuanschutz.edu/news-stories/aftermath-of-maui-wildfires-may-have-a-heavy-mental-health-toll. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.

Levin, Sam. “$10.24 a Day to Risk Their Lives – and a Lot of Pride: Incarcerated La Firefighters Speak Out.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 17 Jan. 2025, www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/jan/17/la-wildfires-incarcerated-firefighters. Accessed 30 Apr. 2025.

Morse, Susan. “Managing Fire: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.” FWS.Gov, 1 Mar. 2025, www.fws.gov/story/managing-fire. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.

US Department of Commerce, NOAA. “Fire Weather Criteria.” National Weather Service, NOAA’s National Weather Service, 20 Mar. 2015, www.weather.gov/gjt/firewxcriteria. Accessed 05 May 2025.

Wandersee, Michael, et al. “Wildland Fires Could Be Putting Your Drinking Water at Risk (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 31 July 2023, www.nps.gov/articles/000/wildland-fires-could-be-putting-your-drinking-water-at-risk.htm. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Image Sources:

https://scitechdaily.com/quantifying-catastrophe-nasa-reveals-staggering-carbon-footprint-of-canadas-extreme-wildfires/

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07878-z

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https://coastalreview.org/2021/09/australian-wildfires-fertilized–algal-blooms-study

https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/weather/2025/02/28/what-is-red-flag-warning-high-to-extreme-fire-danger-in-iowa-friday-nws/80832093007/