33 References
Section: Water Quality in Iowa
“The 17 Goals | Sustainable Development.” United Nations, United Nations, sdgs.un.org/goals. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Addressing Nitrate with the Drinking Water State Revolving …, www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/documents/addressing_nitrates_with_the_dwsrf-final.pdf. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Mahdi Al-Kaisi, Retired Professor of Soil Management/ Environment and Extension Soi, et al. “Frequent Tillage and Its Impact on Soil Quality.” Integrated Crop Management, 11 Mar. 2025,crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/frequent-tillage-and-its-impact-soil-quality#:~:text=Frequent%20tillage%20and%20water%20quality,serious%20surface%20water%20quality%20problem.
“Average Nitrate Concentration by Public Water System All County – 2023.” Workbook: Public Water Nitrate, data.idph.state.ia.us/t/IDPH-DataViz/views/PublicWaterNitrate/NitratebyPWS?iframeSizedToWindow=true&%3Aembed=y&%3AshowAppBanner=false&%3Adisplay_count=no&%3AshowVizHome=no&%3Arender=false. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Bashar Khiatah, MD. “The Health Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers.” Amos Institute, Amos Institute, amosinstitute.com/blog/the-health-impacts-of-chemical-fertilizers/. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Biden-Harris Administration Makes Unprecedented Progress to Protect Communities from PFAS Pollution.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-makes-unprecedented-progress-protect-communities-pfas#:~:text=Protecting%20drinking%20water%3A%20In%202024,of%20thousands%20of%20serious%20illnesses. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Causes and Effects of Lead in Water, www.nrdc.org/stories/causes-and-effects-lead-water. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Cover Cropping to Improve Climate Resilience.” Cover Cropping to Improve Climate Resilience | USDA Climate Hubs, www.climatehubs.usda.gov/hubs/northeast/topic/cover-cropping-improve-climate-resilience. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Des Moines Water Works, IA, www.dmww.com/news_detail_T37_R193.php#:~:text=The%20proposed%202020%20operating%20expenses,are%20budgeted%20at%20%2427.5%20million. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Drinking Water Quality.” Facilities Management – The University of Iowa, facilities.uiowa.edu/drinking-water-quality#accordion-item-2081-5. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“The Effects: Dead Zones and Harmful Algal Blooms.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/effects-dead-zones-and-harmful-algal-blooms. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Elevated Nitrate in Iowa’s Public Water Systems Disproportionately Affects Vulnerable Populations.” Elevated Nitrate in Iowa’s Public Water Systems Disproportionately Affects Vulnerable Populations – Iowa Environmental Council, www.iaenvironment.org/blog/iowa-environmental-voice/elevated-nitrate-in-iowas-public-water-systems-disproportionately-affects-vulnerable-populations. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Environmental & Climate Justice Issue Brief: Clean Water.” NAACP, 15 Feb. 2024, naacp.org/resources/environmental-climate-justice-issue-brief-clean-water.
Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI). “No-till Farming Improves Soil Health and Mitigates Climate Change.” EESI, www.eesi.org/articles/view/no-till-farming-improves-soil-health-and-mitigates-climate-change#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20no%2Dtill%20farming,crops%20and%20other%20sustainable%20practices. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Environmental Justice.” American Public Health Association, www.apha.org/topics-and-issues/environmental-health/environmental-justice. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“EPA Takes Action on Iowa’s 2024 List of Impaired Waters.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-takes-action-iowas-2024-list-impaired-waters. Accessed Apr. 2025.
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/nps/nonpoint-source-agriculture#:~:text=Increased%20levels%20of%20nitrogen%20and,%2C%20downstream%20reservoirs%2C%20and%20estuaries. Accessed Apr. 2025.
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/sdwa/overview-drinking-water-treatment-technologies. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Erosion 101: Everything You Need to Know about Soil Erosion, www.nrdc.org/stories/soil-erosion-101. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Estimated Nitrate Concentrations in Groundwater Used for Drinking.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/estimated-nitrate-concentrations-groundwater-used-drinking. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Factsheet on Water Quality Parameters, www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-07/parameter-factsheet_ph.pdf. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Federally Promulgated Water Quality Standards for Specific States, Territories, and Tribes.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/federally-promulgated-water-quality-standards-specific-states-territories-and-tribes. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Flint Water Crisis: Everything You Need to Know, www.nrdc.org/stories/flint-water-crisis-everything-you-need-know. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Flint Water Crisis: Most Egregious Example of Environmental Injustice, Says U-M Researcher | University of Michigan News, news.umich.edu/flint-water-crisis-most-egregious-example-of-environmental-injustice-says-u-m-researcher/. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“General Information About Injection Wells.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/uic/general-information-about-injection-wells#:~:text=Regulating%20agency-,Definition%20of%20injection%20well,or%20water%20mixed%20with%20chemicals. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Guest Author Sara Delheimer. “Improving Drainage Management on Agricultural Lands.” National Institute of Food and Agriculture, www.nifa.usda.gov/about-nifa/blogs/improving-drainage-management-agricultural-lands. Accessed Apr. 2025.
HI Iceland. “Is It Safe to Drink the Water in Iceland?” HI Iceland, www.hostel.is/en/inspiration/is-it-safe-to-drink-the-water-in-iceland. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“History of the Clean Water Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Horne, Rachel, and Play Iceland. “Icelandic Water: Why It Smells, and What You Should Do about It!” Play Iceland, 27 July 2023, playiceland.is/icelandic-water-why-it-smells-and-what-you-should-do-about-it/#:~:text=Iceland’s%20hot%20water%20is%20heated,will%20just%20smell%20clean!
“Infant Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome).” Wisconsin Department of Health Services, 3 Jan. 2025, www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/water/blue-baby-syndrome.htm.
Inorganic Nitrate/Nitrite (Sodium and Potassium Nitrates), www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/reregistration/fs_G-49_1-Sep-91.pdf. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Iowa Public Radio By Grant Gerlock. “Water Utilities Warn of Restrictions If Nitrate Levels Stay High in the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers.” Iowa Public Radio, 4 June 2024, www.iowapublicradio.org/ipr-news/2024-06-04/water-utilities-warn-of-restrictions-if-nitrate-levels-stay-high-in-the-des-moines-and-raccoon-rivers.
Iowa Public Radio By Natalie Krebs. “Report Finds Iowa Has Fastest Growing Rate of New Cancer in U.S.” Iowa Public Radio, 20 Feb. 2024, www.iowapublicradio.org/health/2024-02-20/report-finds-iowa-has-fastest-growing-rate-of-new-cancer-in-u-s.
Koons, Cami. “EPA Confirms Additions to Iowa Impaired Waters List • Iowa Capital Dispatch.” Iowa Capital Dispatch, 13 Jan. 2025, iowacapitaldispatch.com/2025/01/13/epa-confirms-additions-to-iowa-impaired-waters-list/.
“Lead Testing Results for Water Sampled by Residents.” Flint Water Study Updates, 19 Oct. 2016, flintwaterstudy.org/information-for-flint-residents/results-for-citizen-testing-for-lead-300-kits/.
MIDWEST, Madison McVan/INVESTIGATE. “Large Cafos Are Known Polluters. Here’s Why EPA Permits Only Cover One-Third • Iowa Capital Dispatch.” Iowa Capital Dispatch, 21 Nov. 2022, iowacapitaldispatch.com/2022/11/21/large-cafos-are-known-polluters-heres-why-epa-permits-only-cover-one-third/#:~:text=Iowa%20among%20states%20with%20lowest,it’s%20reflected%20in%20our%20laws.%E2%80%9D.
“National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Nitrate in Drinking Water.” Nitrate in Drinking Water – MN Dept. of Health, www.health.state.mn.us/communities/environment/water/contaminants/nitrate.html#:~:text=Science%20has%20emerged%20recently%20describing,and%20cancers%20(particularly%20colorectal). Accessed Apr. 2025.
No-till: The Quiet Revolution, www.ars.usda.gov/arsuserfiles/20902500/davidhuggins/notill.pdf. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Nonpoint Source: Agriculture.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/nps/nonpoint-source-agriculture#:~:text=Why?,and%20affect%20drinking%20water%20supplies. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Nutrient Reduction Strategy.” Department of Natural Resources, 27 Feb. 2025, www.iowadnr.gov/environmental-protection/water-quality/nutrient-reduction-strategy#:~:text=The%20Iowa%20Nutrient%20Reduction%20Strategy,and%20the%20Gulf%20of%20Mexico.
Padmore Mantey, Emmanuel, et al. “Disparities in Potential Nitrate Exposures within Iowa Public Water Systems.” Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, Royal Society of Chemistry, 25 Feb. 2025, pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2025/ew/d4ew00907j.
“Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).” Farmers.Gov, 18 Feb. 2025, www.farmers.gov/protection-recovery/pfas.
“PFAS Explained.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Pfas Exposure and Risk of Cancer.” NCI, dceg.cancer.gov/research/what-we-study/pfas. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Press, The Associated. “A Closer Look at the Demographics of Flint, Michigan.” AP News, AP News, 30 June 2023, apnews.com/general-news-7b2bcfdcc8d74ece9e0cb167a2239745.
“Private Well Program.” Department of Natural Resources, 3 Mar. 2025, www.iowadnr.gov/environmental-protection/water-quality/private-well-program.
“Private Well Water.” Health & Human Services, 27 Dec. 2023, hhs.iowa.gov/data/environment/well-water#:~:text=Private%20water%20wells%20supply%20drinking,Natural%20Resources%20Private%20Well%20program.
Program, Human Foods. “Safety of Bottled Water Beverages.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA, www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/fda-regulates-safety-bottled-water-beverages-including-flavored-water-and-nutrient-added-water. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Puretec. “Reverse Osmosis – the Basics.” Puretec Industrial Water, 11 Mar. 2025, puretecwater.com/resources/the-basics-of-reverse-osmosis/.
“Reaching and Improving Iowa’s Private Wells.” Reaching and Improving Iowa’s Private Wells – Iowa Environmental Council, www.iaenvironment.org/blog/iowa-environmental-voice/reaching-and-improving-iowa-private-wells#:~:text=Importantly%2C%20their%20simple%20intervention%20worked,Read%20on%20to%20learn%20more.&text=Between%20230%2C000%20and%20290%2C000%20Iowans,for%20their%20drinking%20water%20supply. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Reducing PFAS in Drinking Water with Treatment Technologies.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/sciencematters/reducing-pfas-drinking-water-treatment-technologies. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Relationship between Water Quality Criteria and Water Quality Standards.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/relationship-between-water-quality-criteria-and-water-quality-standards#:~:text=Water%20quality%20standards%20are%20regulations%20that%20include,reviewed%20and%20approved%20or%20disapproved%20by%20EPA. Accessed May 2025.
Schaider, Laurel A., et al. “Environmental Justice and Drinking Water Quality: Are There Socioeconomic Disparities in Nitrate Levels in U.S. Drinking Water? – Environmental Health.” BioMed Central, BioMed Central, 17 Jan. 2019, ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0442-6#Sec10.
Strong, Jared. “Feds: A Dozen Iowa Water Suppliers Need to Fix ‘forever Chemical’ Contamination • Iowa Capital Dispatch.” Iowa Capital Dispatch, 10 Apr. 2024, iowacapitaldispatch.com/2024/04/10/feds-a-dozen-iowa-water-suppliers-need-to-fix-forever-chemical-contamination/.
“Summary of the Clean Water Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Tim De Chant Senior Technology Reporter Emeritus Tim De Chant Senior Technology Reporter Emeritus. “Flint Water Crisis Costs Michigan $600 Million-Preventing It Would Have Cost $80/Day.” Ars Technica, 12 Nov. 2021, arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2021/11/children-poisoned-by-flint-water-will-receive-majority-of-626-million-settlement/.
Trotter, Phoebe. “Iowa Legislators Introduce New Clean Water for Iowa Act.” Food & Water Watch, 8 Feb. 2024, www.foodandwaterwatch.org/2024/02/08/iowa-legislators-introduce-new-clean-water-for-iowa-act/#:~:text=The%20proposed%20legislation%20requires%20that,necessary%20to%20protect%20water%20quality.
U.S. Census Bureau Quickfacts: Iowa, www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/IA/PST045224. Accessed Apr. 2025.
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Nonpoint Source Pollution, NOS Education Offering.” Pollution Tutorial, 1 June 2013, oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_pollution/03pointsource.html.
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “What Is Eutrophication?” NOAA’s National Ocean Service, 2 Apr. 2019, oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html#:~:text=Eutrophication%20is%20a%20big%20word,shell%20formation%20in%20bivalve%20mollusks.
Using Winter Cover Crops to Improve Soil and Water Quality, www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/60100500/csr/ResearchPubs/reeves/reeves_01b.pdf. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Water Erosion: Different Types and Prevention Measures.” EOS Data Analytics, 8 July 2024, eos.com/blog/water-erosion/#:~:text=What%20Is%20Water%20Erosion?,it%20comes%20to%20this%20issue.
“Water Quality Questions & Answers.” USGS, www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/water-quality-questions-answers. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“Water Quality Standards Regulations: Iowa.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/water-quality-standards-regulations-iowa. Accessed Apr. 2025.
“What Are the Seven Steps of Water Treatment? – Ion Exchange.” Ion Kenya Regional Site, 11 Nov. 2024, ke.ionexchangeglobal.com/what-are-the-seven-steps-of-water-treatment/.
“What Are Water Quality Standards?” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/what-are-water-quality-standards#crit. Accessed Apr. 2025.
Section: US Water Quality Issues and Regulations
PFAS
CDC. “How PFAS Impacts Your Health.” Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Your Health, 7 Nov. 2024, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/about/health-effects.html.
Dwyer, Devin, and Sarah Herndon. “Firefighting Foam Polluted Water with PFAS. Decades Later, Pentagon Changes Course.” ABC News, ABC News, 2 May 2024, abcnews.go.com/Politics/firefighting-foam-polluted-water-pfas-decades-pentagon/story?id=109535281.
Interstate Technology Regulatory Council. “8 Basis of Regulations – PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances.” Itrcweb.org, 2016, pfas-1.itrcweb.org/8-basis-of-regulations/.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. “Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 4 Dec. 2023, www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc.
Responsible Purchasing Network. A Slick New Guide to Avoiding PFAS (Forever Chemicals) in Products Using Massachusetts Statewide Contracts by the Responsible Purchasing Network for MA Operational Services Division What Are PFAS? 2023.
Stovne, Jorgen. “Heavy Metals and Bioaccumulation: What You Need to Know.” SimpleLab Tap Score, 3 Aug. 2018, mytapscore.com/blogs/tips-for-taps/heavy-metals-bioaccumulation.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. “Our Current Understanding of the Human Health and Environmental Risks of PFAS.” Www.epa.gov, 7 June 2023, www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas.
“Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).” Www.epa.gov, 10 Apr. 2024, www.epa.gov/sdwa/and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas.
US EPA. “How’s My Waterway? | US EPA.” US EPA, 6 Dec. 2021, mywaterway.epa.gov/community/52240/overview. Accessed 12 Feb. 2025.
Lead Contamination:
Fawkes, Leanne, and Garett Sansom. “Preliminary Study of Lead-Contaminated Drinking Water in Public Parks—an Assessment of Equity and Exposure Risks in Two Texas Communities.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 12, 14 June 2021, p. 6443, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126443.
McBride, James, and Noah Berman. “How U.S. Water Infrastructure Works.” Council on Foreign Relations, 31 Mar. 2023, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/how-us-water-infrastructure-works.
US EPA. “Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water | US EPA.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 23 Mar. 2018, www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/basic-information-about-lead-drinking-water.
US EPA, ORD. “Water Infrastructure Resilience.” US EPA, 13 Aug. 2019, www.epa.gov/emergency-response-research/water-infrastructure-resilience.
VanDerslice, James. “Drinking Water Infrastructure and Environmental Disparities: Evidence and Methodological Considerations.” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 101, no. Suppl 1, 1 Dec. 2011, pp. S109–S114, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222486/, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300189.
Climate Change:
CDC. “Harmful Algal Blooms: Contributing Factors and Impacts.” Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)-Associated Illness, 23 Apr. 2024, www.cdc.gov/harmful-algal-blooms/about/harmful-algal-blooms-contributing-factors-and-impacts.html.
“Climate Impacts on Water Quality.” US EPA, 10 May 2016, www.epa.gov/arc-x/climate-impacts-water-quality.
“Drought and Climate Change.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, 13 Jan. 2025, www.c2es.org/content/drought-and-climate-change/?
EPA. “Water Infrastructure Investments.” Www.epa.gov, 5 Nov. 2021, www.epa.gov/infrastructure/water-infrastructure-investments.
“State Action on Resilience.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, www.c2es.org/content/state-action-on-resilience/.
Storms and Flooding. “Storms and Flooding: Implications of Climate Change: ERIT: Environmental Resilience Institute: Indiana University.” Environmental Resilience Institute, 2025, eri.iu.edu/erit/implications/storms-flooding.html?utm. Accessed 17 Apr. 2025.
US EPA. “Climate Adaptation and Harmful Algal Blooms.” Www.epa.gov, 3 May 2016, www.epa.gov/arc-x/climate-adaptation-and-harmful-algal-blooms.