National Analysis of Environmental Justice

What is Environmental Justice in the United States?

Healthy People 2030 identify the neighborhood and built environment as a social determinant of health. This means that an individual’s environment influences their overall health, wellbeing, and quality of life. This also means that the environment can contribute to health disparities and inequities (Social Determinants of Health, n.d.). The federal government and community-based organizations address these inequities via environmental justice. Environmental justice means that everyone, regardless of race, color, national origin, disability, or income has the right to meaningful involvement in decision making processes and are fully and equally protected from disproportionate and adverse human health and environmental effects, risks, and hazards (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). Environmental justice strives to ensure equitable access to a healthy, safe, and stable environment for all. The environmental justice movement was built on the efforts of communities of color- the communities most disproportionately burdened with environmental hazards. An unfortunate pattern that led to the adoption of the term ‘environmental racism.’

Specifically, environmental racism is the intentional, disproportionate placement of environmental hazards, such as waste processing facilities, landfills, and pollution, in communities of color. It is a result of the systemic racism in the United States and harmful policies and programs that favor the positive health outcomes of white communities over communities of color (Miller & Skelton, 2023). For example, many vulnerable communities that were a victim of redlining in the 1930’s are now communities that bear the burden of environmental health disparities due to higher exposure to environmental hazards and inadequate access to health-promoting resources (Douglas, 2024). Environmental justice and environmental racism are closely intertwined in the United States and their relationship will be examined in this section of the text. Other topics of discussion will include foundational literature, public policy, prominent cases, and future implications of the environmental justice movement.

Historical Context of Environmental Justice in the United States.

Environmental justice and racism have a long, sordid history in the United States. This section aims to highlight only few key foundational studies and cases that helped shape environmental justice and racism as we know them today.

In 1983, Solid Waste Sites and Houston Black Community was a study conducted by Dr. Robert Bullard- an environmental scientist that is known as the ‘father’ of the environmental justice movement- that documented waste site locations in Houston, Texas. Dr. Bullard found that over 75% of all of Houston’s garbage dumps, landfills, and incinerators- both publicly and/or privately owned- were sited in predominately black neighborhoods (Environmental Protection Agency, 2024). This was the first cumulative report of environmental racism in the United States.

Also in 1983, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) conducted a study, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities, that found that 75% of hazardous waste landfills in the study were hosted by low-income communities of color (Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

A more comprehensive analysis, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, was conducted by The United Church of Christ Commission of Racial Justice in 1987. The United Church of Christ (UCC) examined the “statistical relationship between hazardous waste sites and the racial and socioeconomic composition of host communities nationwide” (Environmental Justice Timeline, 2024). The study found that race was the top factor associated with toxic waste facility locations. Because of this, this study is often credited with coining the term ‘environmental racism.’

Environmental Justice Issues and Vulnerable Communities in the United States

Within the Environmental Burden Module of Environmental Justice Indicators (EJI), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identifies air pollution, hazardous and toxic waste sites, the built environment, transportation, and water pollution as environmental indicators that are connected to pollution and/or negative impacts on human health (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). Negative health outcomes associated with environmental risks are unequally distributed across communities within the United States. Differences in age, poverty, and minority status are associated with a disproportionately high risk of obtaining environment-related diseases, with unequal access to quality healthcare and health information playing an important role (Gochfeld & Burger, 2011). For example, according to research conducted by Dr. Al-Aly, a physician and epidemiologist, “the burden of death and disease related to air pollution is disproportionately borne by communities of color and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities” (Al-Aly, 2022). He discusses how despite how the overall exposure to air pollution has decreased since the implementation of the Clean Air Act, communities of color maintain high levels of exposure to air pollutants while air quality in White communities has increased (Al-Aly, 2022). In the U.S. enforcement of environmental laws, infrastructure investments, industrial polluter accountability are all more likely in White, wealthy communities, meanwhile, marginalized communities are often subject to several environmental hazards at time, including contaminated water and proximity to polluting industrial plants (Miller & Skelton, 2023). As this section moves into the discussion of the “extensive” policies that have been implemented to prevent and/or address environmental hazards and/or injustices within the United States, consider the implications of the quality and fairness of their enforcement of if the above disparities are still present.

U.S. Government Policy and Executive Orders

In the U.S. there are many environmental protections imposed by the federal government that are supervised and enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), formed in 1970. While it is the directive of the EPA to protect human health and the environment, numerous other federal agencies must play a role in addressing environmental injustices and enforcing related government initiatives. This section will introduce several landmark federal policies and initiatives that have impacted the nation’s environmental justice protection

In 1970, the Clean Air Act (CAA) was passed. The CAA regulates air emissions and caused the establishment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards which aim to protect the public from unsafe levels of hazardous air pollutants. The NAAQS defines the maximum permissible concentrations for six “criteria” air pollutants- carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particle pollution, and sulfur dioxide (Environmental Protection Agency, 2024). This is important to the environmental justice movement because the CAA is intended to set a nationwide standard which, in theory, should protect groups that are more vulnerable to air pollution. This is only one early example of an overarching policy that implemented regulations to ensure the quality of a natural resource, protecting both the public and the environment alike. Many subsequent acts such as the 1972 Clean Water Act also contribute to the objectives of the environmental justice movement and the health of the environment. However, for the purposes of this chapter, we will primarily focus on policies and initiatives that aim to promote environmental justice specifically. However, as will be exemplified later in this chapter, these regulations are often not enforced in a way that effectively protects vulnerable populations.

In 1970, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was signed into law. This act was not created specifically in the name of Environmental Justice, but many of its protections are in alignment with the goals of the environmental justice movement. NEPA requires federal agencies to assess and publicly report the environmental effects, and related harms, of their operation proposals before finalization. Also, NEPA allows public input on said evaluations and requires that cumulative impact of all existing operations in the host communities be considered too (Environmental Protection Agency, 2025b).

The Office of Environmental Justice and External Civil Rights (OEJECR), originally the office of Environmental Equity, was established in 1992. The OEJECR imparts guidance on the EPA’s environmental justice and external civil rights initiatives by coordinating their implementation within and outside of the agency- such as on state, local, and community levels. Additionally, the OEJECR directly engages with communities in support of their solutions for environmental concerns (About the Office of Environmental Justice, 2025). Most importantly, this office enforces federal civil rights laws, ensuring discrimination is not present in the disbursement of financial assistance from the EPA to applicants and potential recipients. These responsibilities are executed by the one center: the Conflict Prevention and Resolution Center, and the four offices: Office of Resource Management and Communications, Office of Community Support, Office of Policy, Partnerships, and Program Development, and the Office of External Civil Rights Compliance that are under the OEJECR (Environmental Protection Agency, 2025a).

In 1993, the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council (NEJAC) was established. This federal committee thoroughly evaluates issues related to environmental justice- including the scientific, regulatory, economic, technological, community domains- then advises and supports the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on integrating their findings into policies and activities. Additional objectives include improving health in communities disproportionately affected by environmental hazards, ensure meaningful involvement and collaboration in EPA decision making, strengthen partnerships with other government agencies and levels of government regarding environmental justice issues, and improve environmental justice related research and review (Environmental Protection Agency, 2025c). Constituents are encouraged to attend NEJAC public meetings and to assess any materials used or created by members of the NEJAC in their deliberations and submit comments to the committee. These objectives address and intentionally align with the mission of the environmental justice movement.

Executive Orders

In 1994, Executive Order 12898- Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations- was issued. The executive order directed federal agencies to “develop strategies on how to identify and address the disproportionate adverse human health and environmental effects of programs, policies, and activities on minority and low-income populations” (Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). However, in 2006, the EPA’s inspector general at the time filed a report criticizing the EPA’s poor enforcement of Executive Order 12898 with instructions for improvement (Environmental Justice Update, 2022). This long-standing order has since been revoked by President Donald Trump via a presidential action on January 21, 2025, as part of his agenda to “end illegal discrimination in the federal government” (The United States Government, 2025). This effectively eliminates the requirements that federal agencies develop an Environmental Justice Strategy, monitor and publish progress reports and outcomes of those plans and encourage meaningful public discourse and comments.

Over 25 years later, the Biden Administration highlighted the importance of environmental justice initiatives and took lengths to enhance existing programs as well as create new ones. Within Biden’s first week of presidency, he signed Executive Order 14008: Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad. This executive order outlined an ambitious, thorough, and rigorous plan to address the climate change crisis domestically and internationally, asserting that all individuals have the right to live healthy environments in which they can prosper but many lack access to safe communities and environments that would allow them to do so (Environmental justice, n.d.). Executive Order 14008 established several new initiatives, including the White House Environmental Justice Advisory Council (WHEJAC), the White House Environmental Justice Interagency Council (IAC), the Justice 40 Initiative, the Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool, and others (Environmental justice, n.d.). Focusing on one of the more ambitious initiatives implemented by this executive order, the Justice40 initiative requires that at least 40 percent of the benefits from federal climate-related infrastructure investments are issued toward disinvested and overburdened communities (Lindwall, 2023). This includes any federal investments that fall into the following categories: climate change, clean energy and energy efficiency, clean transit, affordable and sustainable housing, remediation and reduction of legacy pollution, critical clean water and wastewater infrastructure, training and workforce development related to these investment areas. This sweeping initiative aimed to specifically benefit low-income census tracts that also bear at least one environmental, economic, or health burden, including indigenous tribes. Approximately 29 percent of the United States population fit the Justice40 community criteria (Lindwall, 2023). If enforced effectively, the Executive Order 14008 and Executive Order 14096: Revitalizing Our Nation’s Commitment to Environmental Justice for All signed by President Biden aimed to build and expand on the environmental justice goals Executive Order 12898, which was discussed in the last paragraph.

These policies aim to address environmental justice from the top down. However, it is often that grass roots environmental health organizations need to rally local support and advocate on behalf of their communities. While these policies exist on the federal level, the efficacy of them may change depending on funding, strength of enforcement, change in administration, and other factors. Therefore, it is equally important to discuss the heart of the environmental justice movement: community activism.

Another change brought about by this administration is the removal of public environmental justice data.

Several websites containing information about the environmental justice movement including old and current policies, history, and research have either been altered, incomplete, or completely removed. These changes are being conducted to satisfy the new restrictions introduced by the Trump administration to eliminate any material from government websites that could be deemed discriminatory. Unfortunately, this has included a lot of language concerning historically vulnerable communities or associations with social justice and/or diversity, equity, and inclusion. This could prove to be disastrous considering that many federal agencies, researchers, advocates, and community members rely on publicly available data from the U.S. government. These resources may be used for anything from learning about and potentially challenging policies and practices or to identify vulnerable areas that are at a higher risk. Without this important information, local environmental justice advocacy groups have less information and therefore less effectiveness and power. In fact, this change was a significant obstacle to the research process and completion of this very chapter. Public data is a public good. 

 

Case Studies

As the unfortunate nickname suggests, individuals living on this strip of land have shown a disproportionate increase in cancer cases and other air pollution related chronic conditions compared to surrounding areas in Louisiana. Within Cancer Alley, an average of 46 per 1 million people are at risk of developing cancer. The national average is 30 per 1 million people (Rosene, 2023). Additionally, according to a 2012 study, “Cancer risk increases by 12-16% in low-income/black-dominant tracts compared to high-income/white tracts” (James et al.)

The Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality (LDEQ) has failed to keep Louisiana residents within the parishes of Cancer Alley safe due to weak enforcement of environmental protection laws and regulations. Instead, the LDEQ often prioritizes the potential for economic development over the health of Louisiana’s environment and community members. However, the residents of cancer alley do not reap any of the benefits of the new installments, but bare most of the burden. There is also a clear conflict of interest between LDEQ as the body that issues the permits and the large petrochemical companies that offer payment to expedite the approval process (Rosene, 2023). Additionally, Cancer Alley is a significant example of the failure of the EPA to effectively enforce federal policies and regulations in vulnerable communities. Due to the unwillingness of the local and federal government to intervene on behalf of the residents, many grassroots organizations and their members have taken to advocating for themselves. One of which, RISE St. James, have successfully led to the cancellation of a previously issued permit for another petrochemical plant in St. James Parish (Greenfield, 2022).

Personal Statement

I was very excited that I was assigned the topic of Environmental Justice for this semester. I am also majoring in Social Work so Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism is something I have learned about a lot in my social work classes last semester. Therefore, I was very excited to attempt to view this topic through a public health lens. However, it was significantly more difficult to learn about the topic this semester than it was only 5 months ago. As discussed earlier in my section of this chapter, I quickly discovered that many government resources that were publicly available last semester now 1) no longer exist, 2) are inconsistently available, or 3) exist with incomplete or contradictory information. This is the first time that I have experienced something like this as a student. Regardless, I was able to glean some information from the remaining government resources, but the bulk of information was sourced from academic journals and publications and international and grassroots advocacy groups’ websites. Therefore, not only did I learn about Environmental Justice this semester, but I also learned about how volatile information has become with the new administration. A realization that has been a great source of discomfort.

Learning about the history and ongoing cases of injustice within the environmental justice movement has led me to critically reflect on my own hometown. I grew up in Sioux City, IA which is about 4.5 hours away from the University of Iowa. It is unaffectionately known to locals and surrounding cities as Sewer City. This is due to the rancid stench hanging in the air as one enters the north side of the city via interstate 29. Those of us living in Sioux City have always attributed the smell to the plethora of meat packaging plants in the tristate era, often clinging to the uniforms of its employees. Examining these circumstances of my hometown through an environmental justice lens has led me to question the circumstances in which they were created. There are at least eight meat packaging plants in Sioux City with at least another two right across the bridge in the neighboring city. This does not include other industrial plants in the area. Growing up and presently, most of my family members have worked/work at one or several of these plants. The smell has also been attributed to the polluted Missouri River that runs along the interstate. It is often during the summer that one can see the brown wake created by the recreational boaters. This project enabled me to notice the warning signs indicative of the disproportionate burden of environmental hazards my community may be facing. In fact, in another section of this chapter written by my groupmate, I learned that Sioux City is identified as a disadvantaged community in Iowa with one of the highest environmental burdens. This knowledge has prompted me to seek out ways I can get involved in local environmental justice initiatives within Sioux City. I am grateful that this assignment provided me with the opportunity to not only expand my worldview, but also to engage with my community in a new and meaningful way.

Conclusion

In summary, environmental justice remains a very prevalent issue in the United States. This section of the text discussed means of addressing environmental injustice and racism on both a federal and community level. This section also briefly discussed the history of environmental justice in the United States and the future implications of the current state of government. Due to the dynamic nature of the environment and society, the state of environmental justice is constantly changing. Having learned about these topics, consider how environmental justice has impacted your community and what role you intend to play in the ongoing movement.

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