Cover art for The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe, illustrated by Gustav Doré
THE RAVEN.
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore —
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.
“ ’Tis some visiter,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door —
Only this and nothing more.”
Notice how the poem’s narrative structure immediately introduces tension to the reader.
Our unknown narrator edges in and out of consciousness as they nap, and they also mutter to themselves. These establish our narrator’s first-person perspective as possibly unreliable, because they may be delirious or simply dreaming.
Likewise, they’ve been awoken at midnight when no stranger should be visiting. Midnight also symbolizes great change, as it is when theoretically a “new day” has begun, and also, one’s midnight may refer to a “dark” time in one’s life. It is known to be a time when dreams, revelations, attacks, and visitations from the spirit world often come.
The chamber, too, contributes to the story’s tension, as our narrator is alone in an enclosed and Gothic space with “forgotten lore” which is, in a sense, the living voice of long-dead authors and their spirits.
These devices not only build tension but together amalgamate to begin creating Poe’s desired “unity of effect” of melancholy and sorrow, which will be continuously contributed to throughout the piece’s entirety.
Source: Poe’s “The Philosophy of Composition”
Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December; [A]
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. [B]
Eagerly I wished the morrow; — vainly I had sought to borrow [C]
From my books surcease of sorrow — sorrow for the lost Lenore — [B]
For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore — [B]
Nameless here for evermore. [B]
“The Raven” is a ballad utilizing trochaic octameter, which is not a common pattern in English language verse. It also follows the ABCBBB rhyme scheme, as highlighted, and additionally contains some internal rhyme, or rhyme within the same line. The repetition of the same word at the end of multiple lines (which is in this stanza “Lenore”) is known as epistrophe.
See the combined alliteration and assonance of the second to last line of the stanza, along with the use of two caesura’s—one after the first instance of “morrow,” and the other after the first instance of “sorrow,”—which afford the poem not only a manipulation of how much information can be presented relatively seamlessly in one line but also a parallelism to the two caesura’s present in the first stanza.
The meter, rhyme scheme, alliteration, assonance, and caesuras of the poem all contribute to the poem’s unique, dreamy musicality. Meanwhile, the devised complexity and strictness, along with the heightened register, complement our scholarly* narrator as he tells us his tale firsthand.
One may argue these altogether reinforce our narrator’s reliability, but it may instead imply intelligence is all too often haunted by madness. Poe himself embodies this notion, considering his success as an intellectual and scholar while also battling recurrent depression, possible bipolar disorder, and drug and alcohol abuse.
*He’s assumed to be scholarly because he’s one to ponder over forgotten lore.
Source: RP
And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain
Thrilled me — filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before;
So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating
“ ’Tis some visiter entreating entrance at my chamber door —
Some late visiter entreating entrance at my chamber door; —
This it is and nothing more.”
Examples of Imagery
Highlighted in the last stanza, Poe presents imagery that engages the reader’s senses immensely. And it is made clear how sensitive our narrator is himself, as the mere rustling of curtains—ordinarily an unnoticeably soft sound—both thrills and terrifies him simultaneously. It’s as though the narrator tip-toes on the precipice of both enlightenment and a panic attack, and so he grounds himself by repeating aloud. But both he and the reader are left with an anxious tension, as the foreshadowed source of tapping and rapping is yet to be revealed. (Does the title of the poem undermine this effect?)
The previous stanza also contained powerful imagery: particularly regarding “December” and “Lenore.”
- December automatically calls to mind all experiences Poe’s readership may associate with the month, such as snow or colder weather, and it also symbolizes winter’s associated death and hibernation.
- Lenore is a diminutive of Eleanor, and it means “light” in Greek and possibly “one who heals” in Latin. She symbolizes the goodness and abundance in the narrator’s life, which he is now (unjustifiably) without.
Source: Rahman
Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer,
“Sir,” said I, “or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore;
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping,
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door,
That I scarce was sure I heard you” — here I opened wide the door; ——
Darkness there and nothing more.
Reread the last stanza aloud and physically hear the “rapping” and “tapping, tapping” at the chamber door, as Poe utilizes onomatopoeia to once more further engage the reader in the “reality” of the poem’s story.
Notice also the lack of an explanation for the sounds, which leaves the reader’s mind to conjure up horrors and fear the unknown. The “darkness there and nothing more,” further isolates the narrator and reader, as there is explicitly no world—or at least, nothing known of the world but darkness and the source of the noise—lying beyond the chamber door. The narrator is not only alone without others or his beloved Lenore, but he is also without a wider world.
Consider he may also be without sanity, and that even the lore of his books have been forgotten, and it seems clear our narrator couldn’t suffer more from “lacking” lest his only anchor to reality, his chamber, were to be taken too.
As he is so full of sorrow, the reader also feels the weight of his sorrow, and as the reader has not yet been given any reason to think the narrator deserves such grief, the piece also induces a strong sense of melancholy.
Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing,
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before;
But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no token,
And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, “Lenore?”
This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, “Lenore!” —
Merely this and nothing more.
The sanity of our narrator is further put into question, as he dares to dream the ordinarily undreamable and somehow hears an echo of his whisper.
But on the other hand, there’s reason to believe something dangerous and intelligent lies waiting for him beyond the door, as the source of the tapping and rapping actively evades his sight and is capable of hearing and mimicking the so subtle sound of his whisper.
The possibility of the thing awaiting him along with the possibility that our narrator is of an unright mind both invoke terror and sorrow, strengthening Poe’s desired unity of effect.
Back into the chamber turning, all my soul within me burning,
Soon again I heard a tapping somewhat louder than before.
“Surely,” said I, “surely that is something at my window lattice;
Let me see, then, what thereat is, and this mystery explore —
Let my heart be still a moment and this mystery explore;—
‘Tis the wind and nothing more!”
Open here I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and flutter,
In there stepped a stately Raven of the saintly days of yore;
Not the least obeisance made he; not a minute stopped or stayed he;
But, with mien of lord or lady, perched above my chamber door —
Perched upon a bust of Pallas just above my chamber door —
Perched, and sat, and nothing more.
The entrance of the “stately Raven” shifts the narrative structure and moves the story into its second act, as the bird’s reveal is the poem’s inciting incident.
See also how Poe works with syntactical minutiae to elevate the perceived importance of the bird. “The Raven” is capitalized, and it is considered “stately,” and the assonance of “stately” and “Raven” together further elevate the bird into such a position where its mere name is harmonious. These subtle features combined imply the bird has a heightened and irregular wiseness—as you’ll see Poe well intended.
Then this ebony bird beguiling my sad fancy into smiling,
By the grave and stern decorum of the countenance it wore,
“Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, thou,” I said, “art sure no craven,
Ghastly grim and ancient Raven wandering from the Nightly shore —
Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian shore!”
Quoth the Raven “Nevermore.”
What exactly is the “Night’s Plutonian shore?”
Pluto is the Roman god of the dead, the underworld, and abundance and riches. “Plutonian,” then, serves a dual purpose, as it calls attention to not only Lenore’s death but also the supposed abundance and riches of the underworld—which directly contrasts our narrator’s melancholic lacking. The “shore” hence refers to the underworld as oceanic, in that it is supposedly vast, dark, and mysterious, while our narrator is also referring to the dark world beyond his chamber door.
Source: Rahman
Much I marvelled this ungainly fowl to hear discourse so plainly,
Though its answer little meaning — little relevancy bore;
For we cannot help agreeing that no living human being
Ever yet was blessed with seeing bird above his chamber door —
Bird or beast upon the sculptured bust above his chamber door,
With such name as “Nevermore.”
But the Raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only
That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did outpour.
Nothing farther then he uttered — not a feather then he fluttered —
Till I scarcely more than muttered “Other friends have flown before —
On the morrow he will leave me, as my Hopes have flown before.”
Then the bird said “Nevermore.”
Startled at the stillness broken by reply so aptly spoken,
“Doubtless,” said I, “what it utters is its only stock and store
Caught from some unhappy master whom unmerciful Disaster
Followed fast and followed faster till his songs one burden bore —
Till the dirges of his Hope that melancholy burden bore
Of ‘Never — nevermore’.”
In every instance, the poem’s refrain of “more” is subverted to represent lacking: it begins “nothing more,” becomes “Nameless here for evermore,” reverts to “nothing more,” and follows as “nevermore” until the poem’s end. The repeated emphasis of this subversion contributes to the melancholy mood of the piece, as the narrator is constantly, stubbornly unafforded any good fortune. The growing strength of the refrain implies his lack and condition is only to worsen as time goes on, thus inspiring a dreadful terror in the reader as the psychological suspense and uncertainty increase.
Source: Caputi
But the Raven still beguiling my sad fancy into smiling,
Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird, and bust and door;
Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking
Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore —
What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore
Meant in croaking “Nevermore.”
Such hyperbole here with “grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore.” In using these words, Poe once again makes clear to the reader that the Raven is no simple bird but instead something different altogether: an ancient and wretched horror. Or at least, that’s how the narrator perceives it.
This I sat engaged in guessing, but no syllable expressing
To the fowl whose fiery eyes now burned into my bosom’s core;
This and more I sat divining, with my head at ease reclining
On the cushion’s velvet lining that the lamp-light gloated o’er,
But whose velvet-violet lining with the lamp-light gloating o’er,
She shall press, ah, nevermore!
“Velvet Lining” by Gustav Doré
Here, the poem’s story shifts into its third and final act, as our narrator moves from simply questioning and wondering about the raven to believing there is some connection between it and his lost, beloved Lenore. Tension has continuously heightened as he questioned the purpose of the bird, and Poe has shown no sign of it stopping.
Then, methought, the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer
Swung by seraphim whose foot-falls tinkled on the tufted floor.
“Wretch,” I cried, “thy God hath lent thee — by these angels he hath sent thee
Respite — respite and nepenthe, from thy memories of Lenore;
Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!”
Quoth the Raven “Nevermore.”
Definitions of the Elevated Register’s Diction
- Censer: a container in which incense is burned, typically during a religious ceremony.
- Seraphim: an angelic being, regarded in traditional Christian angelology as belonging to the highest order of the ninefold celestial hierarchy, associated with light, ardor, and purity.
- Nepenthe: a drug described in Homer’s Odyssey as banishing grief or trouble from a person’s mind. Also, any drug or potion bringing welcome forgetfulness
- Quaff: drink (something, especially an alcoholic drink) heartilySource: Oxford Language
“Prophet!” said I, “thing of evil! — prophet still, if bird or devil! —
Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee here ashore,
Desolate yet all undaunted, on this desert land enchanted —
On this home by Horror haunted — tell me truly, I implore —
Is there — is there balm in Gilead?* — tell me — tell me, I implore!”
Quoth the Raven “Nevermore.”
*Balm in Gilead:
A balm is an aromatic, medicinal substance derived from plants. Gilead was an area east of the Jordan River, well known for its spices and ointments. The “balm of Gilead” was, therefore, a high-quality ointment with healing properties. The Bible uses the term “balm of Gilead” metaphorically as an example of something with healing or soothing powers.
Source: GotQuestions.org
“Prophet!” said I, “thing of evil! — prophet still, if bird or devil!
By that Heaven that bends above us — by that God we both adore —
Tell this soul with sorrow laden if, within the distant Aidenn,
It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels name Lenore —
Clasp a rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore.”
Quoth the Raven “Nevermore.”
“Be that word our sign of parting, bird or fiend!” I shrieked, upstarting —
“Get thee back into the tempest and the Night’s Plutonian shore!
Leave no black plume as a token of that lie thy soul hath spoken!
Leave my loneliness unbroken! — quit the bust above my door!
Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off my door!”
Quoth the Raven “Nevermore.”
And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting
On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is dreaming,
And the lamp-light o’er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
Shall be lifted — nevermore!
“The Raven Award” of the Mystery Writers of America
Regardless of whether Poe’s “unity of effect” of “The Raven” has convinced you that the poem is a masterpiece, the publication of the piece made Edgar Allan Poe a household name and national celebrity almost immediately. As readers began to associate poems with their poets, Poe earned himself the nickname of “The Raven,” and (supposedly) children followed him in the street, flapping their arms like wings until he’d say, “Nevermore!”
The story’s namesake would also be adopted later by the NFL football team the Baltimore Ravens and their three mascots, “Edgar,” “Allan,” and “Poe,” while in Batman, the Joker quoted Poe by saying, “Take thy beak from out my heart.” Bart played the role of the iconic bird in the story’s animated retelling in the Simpsons.
The Mystery Writers of America created the Raven Award to recognize outstanding achievement in the mystery field beyond creative writing, and they also more generally recognize Poe’s contribution to literature by calling all of their awards the Edgar Awards.
Pop culture itself has widely praised Poe’s poem as a masterpiece, as Poe’s readers revere his employment of poetic devices and enjoy the melancholic and sorrowful “unity of effect” they and “The Raven” provide.
Source: Witter
Works Cited:
Caputi, Anthony. “The Refrain in Poe’s Poetry.” American Literature, vol. 25, no. 2, 1953, pp. 169–78. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2921274. Accessed 17 Nov. 2023.
GotQuestions.org. “Balm of Gilead.” GotQuestions.Org, 15 May 2012, www.gotquestions.org/balm-of-Gilead.html.
Poe, Edgar Allan. “Text: Edgar Allan Poe, ‘the Raven’ [Text-10c], Richmond Semi-Weekly Examiner (Richmond, VA), Vol. II, No. 93, September 25, 1849, p. 2, Col. 4-5.” Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore – Works – Poems – The Raven [Text-10c], eapoe.org/works/poems/ravent.htm. Accessed 17 Nov. 2023.
Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Philosophy of Composition by Edgar Allan Poe.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69390/the-philosophy-of-composition. Accessed 11 Dec. 2023.
Rahman, Shegufta. Significance of Symbolism in Edgar Allan Poe‟s Selected Works, dspace.bracu.ac.bd/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10361/4984/Shegufta%20Rahman.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed 12 Dec. 2023.
RP;, Teive HA;Paola Ld;Munhoz. “Edgar Allan Poe and Neurology.” Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24964115/#:~:text=Poe%20suffered%20from%20recurrent%20depression,from%20complications%20related%20to%20alcoholism. Accessed 11 Dec. 2023.
Witter, Brad. “Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘the Raven’ in Popular Culture – Biography.” Biography, www.biography.com/authors-writers/edgar-allan-poe-the-raven-in-pop-culture-examples. Accessed 12 Dec. 2023.