Science like art is a creative endeavor. Therefore, it is not possible to simply list the steps that you should follow to think like a chemist. However, it is possible to list the tools that should be in your mental toolbox in order to function productively in the laboratory. In the laboratory, you will need:

• Background knowledge
• Problem-solving skills
• Social skills
• Technical (laboratory) skills and
• Verbal and writing skills

By applying these mental tools to the problems presented in the case study and laboratory activities of this course, you will develop and improve your abilities, and you will be able to solve challenging problems quickly and efficiently.

Background Knowledge

To get the most out of the case study and laboratory activities, you will need to come prepared, ready to participate and contribute to the group discussion. This means that you should always read the laboratory topics in your laboratory manual and corresponding material in your Brown, LeMay, Bursten, Murphy, Woodward, Stoltzfus (BLBMWS) textbook before you arrive in case study and the laboratory.

Problem-Solving Skills

One of the skills that you will need to develop in this course is problem solving. In the laboratory, there are not only theoretical aspects to the problem but experimental components as well. In trying to establish an approach to solving problems in the laboratory, you might find it useful to break the problems down into steps, and I would suggest 4-E-z steps: evaluate, explore, execute, and explain.

1. Evaluate the problem. Collect and organize the necessary background information. Define a specific question and goal. Consider your resources: chemicals, equipment, reference resources (e.g. textbook), personal knowledge, and lab partners. Relevant questions you might want to address include: What is to be studied? What is the specific goal of the experiment? Is the goal worthy of exploration? Is it likely you will be able to attain the goal? What do I have to work with?
2. Explore and plan the possibilities both mentally and with simple experiments. In this way, you can scout out different avenues of attack before committing to a specific plan. Formulate an initial strategy to meet your objective. This may include some initial exploratory lab work to better define the usefulness of the methods. If you are working in a group, this is a good time to brainstorm and to consider how the work can be divided to maximize the efficiency and productivity of the group. Relevant questions you might want to address include: What are the important variables? How can the variable be controlled? What information and equipment do I need? Can a control experiment be developed to substantiate the validity of the method? Is the plan both efficient and effective? How can the inherent uncertainties in the experiment be measured or at least estimated?
3. Execute the plan. You should carefully conduct the experimental plan and gather data. Modifications and adjustments may be necessary, but in a well formulated plan, no major changes should be needed. Be sure to organize and record your results as you acquire your data.
4. Explain the results. First, explain the results to yourself by analyzing the data to extract from it the chemical contents. Next, communicate the results and scientific meaning to others (your group members, TA, instructor, etc.) This communication always requires clear and concise language and will often require the use of tables, graphs, and other organizational schemes. Relevant questions you might want to address include: What has been observed? What do the observations show? How do the uncertainties associated with the experiment impact the interpretation of the results? Have the main points been summarized and stated clearly? Has the chemical context of the results been clearly stated? Has the goal been achieved?

Technical (laboratory) skills

Although background information regarding laboratory methods will often be introduced in the case study sessions, the laboratory skills usually involve the manipulation of chemicals and therefore will need to be developed in the laboratory. When carrying out a measurement in the laboratory, keep in mind that what you do and how you do it does matter! Think before you act, and if you have a question, be sure to seek help either from a peer, teaching assistant, or instructor.

Verbal and writing skills

A component of any scientific endeavor is to communicate the results of your work in meaningful ways to others. Once you establish a connection between what you have observed in the lab and the chemical concepts that form the basis of your results, a scientist should communicate those findings. In this course, we will follow a common format for communicating scientific results. Classically, the format of most scientific publications (and lab reports) tends to mirror the problem-solving process. A common format for a paper or report would include at least four sections: introduction, experimental method, results, and discussion.

Keeping a laboratory notebook is an important and essential aspect in the job of any science professional. Not only does it serve as a record of procedural information, ideas, data, observations, and conclusions, but it also is legally admissible in a court of law. The scientist must be able to communicate the results of their work clearly, concisely, and accurately. The objective of using a lab notebook in Principles of Chemistry is to begin developing the habits and skills necessary to keep an accurate and complete lab notebook.

Lab Notebook Format

Please use the following format for your notebook. The introduction, safety, and procedure should be completed prior to arrival in lab, so that you can use your limited lab time effectively. It is also often useful to understand the data you will be collecting and prepare a blank data table ahead of time as a component of the Results section.
TITLE: Please be sure the title section of your notebook is completed, including the date of the experiment, a clear indication of your name, your lab section number and your lab partner or partners’ names.

INTRODUCTION: This section should address the following key questions in brief, using your own words. A sentence or two should be all that is needed.

A.  What question am I trying to answer? – This helps define the actions and types of experiments you will conduct in the lab. It should be the problem or question you are being asked to investigate.

B.  What data will need to be collected in order to answer the questions? The lab may include some synthesis of materials and then characterization of that material. It may be a measurement that is needed to answer the question. In all cases you should make a brief statement of what might be made and what specific data or properties you need to measure to answer the question.

C.  What technique will I use to obtain these data? You should indicate what type of measurement technique you are using to obtain the data needed within the experiment.

SAFETY: This section is critical in every lab setting and should never be ignored. One should always address the question of “How will I stay safe during the laboratory?” and do so prior to setting foot in the laboratory.

A.  Chemical Information: You should provide listing of the chemicals to be used in the lab and have made efforts to understand their hazards and procedures to handle them safely. Additionally, you should think and respond about what you might do should there be a safety issue with this chemical (and how to dispose of them).

B.  Procedural Safety: This is the “How will I stay safe?” part of lab preparation. It is not enough to think just about the chemicals used from the standpoint of safety. Sometimes lab procedures can create safety issues. You should also identify procedural manipulations that could put you or others at risk.

PROCEDURE: – By what process will I obtain data to answer the question?

A.  Write a brief working outline of the procedural steps you intend to take when you enter the laboratory to work. Doing so will help assure you that you will use your lab time more effectively and finish on time. Include space to allow modifications to your procedure and comments related to procedural issues. To make space, draw a line vertically, roughly 1/3 of the width of the paper inward from the right hand side. Write your procedure in outline form on the left side of the line and your modifications and notes on the right side.

B.  Create data tables to organize the measurements you will need to make while completing the experiment.

Communicating Your Results: LAB DATA AND RESULTS: – “What did I see? and “What did I Measure?”. This section is to be completed during the lab time, though data tables can often be set up prior to lab.

A.  This section includes data, observations, calculations and graphs.

B.  Include an organized data table with the experimentally determined data in your notebook. Make sure you use proper significant figures, labels, and include all units. These tables may often be created in Microsoft^® Excel or Word.

C.  Qualitative observations should be made at the beginning of the appropriate set of data.

D.  Include appropriate balanced equations for reactions that are being studied during the experiment.

E.  If you are attaching printouts of Excel files at the end of your report, write “Data table can be found on page xx of the report”, so those who read the notebook report can find them.

F.  Include any necessary graphs, which proper labels and affix them to a notebook page.

G.  Show one sample calculation for each calculation performed. You can use the equation editor in Word (or other word processing software) to enter equations. The equation editor found under the “insert” menu. Include all other calculated results in a table.

Example

Molalities of other solutions can be found in Table #.

Communicating Your Results:  DISCUSSION:  “What can I claim as the answer to my question?” – You will want to address this with two distinct purposes in mind.    As the lab was done with a purpose, you should first prepare a conclusion about the success of the laboratory experiment.

A.  Conclusion: Your claim(s) should be clear, concise, and well considered.  You should directly address the result of the experiment, as tied to the initial goal of the experiment.  Make sure your claim(s) can be supported with the data you collected and/or summary data from the class. Do not merely repeat an observation.

For example, an appropriate claim would be: If the concentration of reagent A doubles, so does the rate of the reaction. The reaction is first-order with respect to reagent A.

B.  Post Lab Reflection Questions: In this portion you should answer discussion questions posed in the laboratory manual for the experiment. You should always be prepared to answer the following two questions, even if not directly posed in the lab manual.

1. How does this experimental work relate to concepts about which you have learned in class (or other classes)?
2. What insights do you have into how the experiment or your data could be improved?

Other Procedural “Stuff”:

• Very clearly label each of the individual sections listed in bold text above. There should be only one procedural section including all subsections grouped together. There should only be one data section, etc…
• Write all information into your notebooks directly using permanent ink, making sure that a duplicate copy is made. Do not transfer information into the book from pieces of paper towel or the margins of your lab manual.
• Do not erase any information or use white-out. Instead, if you make an error, correct it by drawing a single bold line through the error and initial it. A comment on why the correction was made often helps you remember
• Clearly label all entries in the notebook. Be certain to include units with all numbers and measurements. Every graph and table needs to be titled and the axes must be appropriately labeled.
• Affix all graphs and loose pages that are generated using spreadsheets directly into the results section.
• If a calculation is made to arrive at an answer, show one example of each calculation in a clearly labeled fashion.
• Sign and Date your experiment when completed.
• All sections are to be written in your own words.